Fakir Mohan
SenapatiÕs alternative discourse
RADHIKA SARAF
IN a series of orders ranging from 26 December 2019 to as recently
as 7 May 2021, the Department of Health and Family Welfare, Government of West
Bengal directed the selective hiring of ÔDomsÕ – an ÔuntouchableÕ caste
– for disposing COVID-19 positive dead bodies from the mortuary of
various hospitals as well as the construction of separate ÔDom roomsÕ adjoining
the mortuary.1
If the ongoing
pandemic has been used to justify the continuing violation of constitutional
protection of ÔuntouchableÕ castes in ÔindependentÕ India, the order exposes
and reinforces a long history of discriminatory caste practices in IndiaÕs
social geography. One of the earliest representations of such practices can be
found in the 19th century novel, Chha Maana Atha Guntha, or Six Acres
and a Third (1896): Fakir Mohan Senapati describes the site of the novel,
Gobindapuras Ôdivided into three quarters: the Saanta or masterÕs quarter, the
weaversÕ quarter, and the Brahmin quarter.Õ2 Further, Ôthe Dom quarter, some four or
five hundred steps from where the weavers lived, was surrounded by rice fields.
It was not a separate village; it formed part of Gobindapur. There lived ten
Dom families and Gobara Jena, the village chowkidar. For his services, he
received an acre and a half of land.Õ3
That
it is possible to refer back to a 19th century novel to find historical
continuities for contemporary practices of segregation is telling of the
stubborn persistence of specific forms of oppression, despite political
freedom. And yet, the very ability of the novel to withstand continual
reevaluation of its relevance to address new problems in changing times makes
the novel a classic.4 Often
recognized as the Ôculmination of the tradition of realismÕ5 in modern Indian literature, SenapatiÕs
novel provides an illuminating description about changing social relations and
the law in colonial rural India through the story of an evil landlord and
moneylender Ramachandra Mangaraj who exploits poor peasants and appropriates
the property of others, including that of the weaver couple Bhagia and Saria.
And yet, the
novel is not merely an instrument of representation. Its robustness as a
classic lies more in his analysis of the Ôideological underpinnings of the
literary representationÕ6 of the object of representation, in this
case, of colonial Indian village society. If colonial social relations persist
today, it is because they produced and are reproduced by the very ideological
frameworks that Senapati critiques. It is for this reason that I find
SenapatiÕs novel written in Oriya – itself a site of resistance against
Bengali cultural hegemony in the colonial context – instructive to
understand our cont-emporary social world.
A
response to Reverend Lal Behari DayÕs Govind Samanta, or Bengal
Peasant Life (1878), Senapati exposes DayÕs Orientalist representation
of Indian village life by mediating
between the object of representation, i.e. Oriya villagers, and the colonialist
assumptions of the novelÕs English-speaking Oriya readers through the literary
innovation of the sardonic touter-narrator who inhabits the lower rungs of
society and alone can survive MangarajÕs oppression.7
Thus, while
rewriting DayÕs representation of women bathing at the village pond, Senapati
gives Ôa brief history of Asura Pond, as told to us by Ekadusia, the
ninety-five-year-old weaverÕ8 and makes a direct address to
ÔEnglish-educated babusÕ9 to Ônot be too critical of our local
historian, Ekadusia Chandra. If you are, half of what Marshman and Tod have
written will not survive the light of scrutiny.Õ10 As Satya Mohanty notes, by rehabilitating
the village historian and questioning the authority of English historians of
Indian village life, Senapati makes as his primary object of satire, Ôthe
English-educated babu, who imitates colonial values mindlessly and accepts
uncritically its condescending attitudes toward indigenous Indian culture.Õ11 Rather than in the 1960s then, as Syed
Farid Alatas states in the introduction of this issue, the problem of
intellectual imperialism and the resultant phenomenon of the captive mind was
already recognized by colonial writers such as Senapati in the late 19th
century.
In
fact, the first few pages of the chapter Bhagia, the Weaver, and Saria, His
Wife help demonstrate a few of the traits of the captive mind as elaborated
by Syed Hussein Alatas12 almost a century later. First, the
narrator appraises the domination of western thought13 by remarking that the English-educated
babu can understand the role and function of the village temple only if Ôwe use
English instead of native terms: the temple in the village functioned as a
church, a public library, a restaurant, and a town hall.Õ14
Second, the
uncritical imitation of western thought15 is critiqued in the import of ÔruchiÕ
– taste, without which, one is considered a fool, uncouth, uncivilized;
it is thus that the literary reputation of the great 18th century Oriya poet
Upendra Bhanja who wrote in the tradition of classical Sanskrit poetry had been
attacked by contemporaries in the modernist literary journal Bijuli (literally
lightning).16
Third, the
narrator points to a separation from oneÕs own intellectual pursuit:17 ÔAsk a new babu his grandfatherÕs
fatherÕs name and he will hem and haw, but the names of the ancestors of
EnglandÕs Charles the Third will readily roll off his tongue. To be considered
a scholar, it is necessary to have read about the English or the French; there
is no point in learning about oneself or oneÕs neighbour.Õ18
Fourth,
SenapatiÕs narrator uses irony to highlight the dependence of the method of
thinking on current stereotypes.19 Thus, Ôif you are a civilized babu, you
will surely believe that this saying (as stupid as a weaver) is absolutely
trueÉBut, Òweaver intelligenceÓ is a complicated expressionÉ the word weaver
denotes a stupid person, but not every stupid person is a weaver. Think of
the Manchester weavers, who made the British Parliament tremble. It is thanks
to them that you can present yourself as a babu.Õ20
Fifth, unlike
DayÕs novel, where the absence of colonial rule indicates a captive mind that
is alienated from the major issues of oneÕs own society,21 Senapati never ceases to critique the
changes wrought by colonial rule. For instance, under the new system of English
law, Ôthe clever and the rich get off, even though in truth, they are guilty of
hundreds of crimes; while the simple and poor get into trouble and are harassed
for their innocence in the law courts.Õ22
Six Acres is exceptional then because it is an
ÔepistemicÕ23 intervention that critiques Ôideology
that inheres in our representational habits.Õ24 However, it is not only an early
identifier of the problem of intellectual imperialism, but also a critique of
the problems that inhere in Indian society itself, and a powerful early
reminder that political freedom is meaningless without economic and social
freedom.
Written from the
Ôperspective of the horse, the ordinary villager, the foot soldierÕ,25 while Senapati draws attention to the
exercise of power enabled by the dominant colonial legal system, he alludes to
an even more revered authority, the classical Indian discourse of the Nyaya
Shastra (The Treatise on Logic). Through the novel, he mimics its
syllogistic reasoning to provide a critique of the prevailing caste-based
hierarchy, thus trans-forming the Shastras into an instrument of subversion.
Thus,
Senapati first establishes the manner in which knowledge of the Shastras is
used to legitimate Brahmin dominance. Pandit Sibu was, like his grandfather, Ôa
great scholarÉcould recite all five chapters of the Amarkosh dictionary,
without even looking at the textÉHis ÔstepfatherÕs uncleÕs sonÕs brotherÕs
brother-in-lawÕs cousin had studied the Nyaya Shastra at NabadwipÕ and
it was owing to Pandit SibuÕs family that Ôscholarship had not altogether
disappeared from the Brahmin quarter.Õ26
Senapati then
challenges BrahminsÕ ethical claims of being natural superiors; if according to
the Shastras, the hallmarks of Brahminhood are Ôself-control, meditation,
performance of duties, purity, contentment, forgiveness, honesty, simplicity,Õ27 a description of the modern Brahmin
reveals discrepancies:
ÔListen to me, O king Pariksha.
These are the qualities of Sundar Tripathy,
A Brahmin of our time:
He takes rice gruel with salted fish,
Of learning he knows nothing;
Adorned with the sacred thread and sandal paste,
He pulls weeds from the rice fields;
A meal of curd and rice flakes, he always craves,
Prayers and the gayatri Mantra, he never chants;
He catches small fish in the rice fields,
And never opens his sacred books;
He steals rice from clients who are his hosts,
At learned gatherings, he never says a word.Õ28
Tripathy
had inherited the position of family priest because he was lawfully begotten a
Brahmin; citing the Shastras that a guru applies the balm of knowledge and
opens the eyes of his pupils blinded by the disease of ignorance, Senapati
delegitimizes the hereditary privileges of Brahmins by asking defiantly, ÔNow tell
us, is a person your guru because he is learned or because he is the son of a
guru?Õ29
But the Shastras
are also used to describe the everyday life of the labouring classes. Thus, the
narrator uses the Shastra: ÔAll rivers run to the sea, where they lose their
sweetness and become saltyÕ to describe the exploitation of the twelve
farmhands, all untouchables, and young daughters-in-law in the Mangaraj
household who are Ôinfused with a spirit of hard work and a sense of
dedicationÕ and Ôlose themselves in their master.Õ30 A little later, the narrator once again
uses the Shastras advice that Ôonly the small-minded make a distinction between
mine and thine,Õ31 to
ironically justify MangarajÕs capture of half the seedlings from the plot of
land of Shyam Gochhaita, a Bauri, an untouchable, who was left to howl and
grovel at MangarajÕs feet for mercy, in vain.
And
yet, this is not a dichotomous tale between Brahmin and dalit, for corruption
and exploitation is so endemic that traditional kin relationships disappear
even as changing social relations wrought by colonial rule enable new alliances
for the exploitation of oneÕs own community. Thus, Jena, although himself a
Pana – an untouchable caste – was a Ôbribe takerÕ32 and had become rich through scheming with
Mangaraj in the exploitation of his kinsmen. Thus, Ôit was suspected that they
(Panas) were involved in thefts, dacoities, and waylaying travellers. This
suspicion was based on knowledge of the number of times the police visited the
Panas, and the Panas visited the prison. Our Gobardhan had one great quality:
if a Pana was jailed, he looked after his helpless family members. He arranged
for them to have supplies of grain from MangarajÕs store.Õ33
If on the one
hand, the narrator directs us to the disruption of caste solidarity, it also
exposes the social nexus between the moneylender – who emerges as the
most important figure of colonial village life – and the law. And yet, in
an anticipatory response to Subaltern StudiesÕ recognition of the challenges of
writing a peopleÕs history in the absence of written records, Senapati writes
from the perspective of the labouring poor, providing us an insight into their
social worlds and documenting resistance. It is thus that he says in his ironic
manner of the oppressed Panas, Ôdetractors, however, always remain detractors;
these people never stopped bad-mouthing Jena. They attached a very different
meaning to this good trait of GobardhanÕs and cast aspersions on MangarajÕs
charity toward the PanasÕ families.Õ34
What
is crucial here is SenapatiÕs deployment of speech as a method of resistance of
the oppressed: if postcolonial studies have emphasized the reading of silence
as a mode of resistance, especially for women, SenapatiÕs attribution of speech
as a form of resistance to the Pana men poses a necessary question: what of the
women in SenapatiÕs novel? Do they speak?
Such a question
is important given that the three primary female characters in the novel:
Saantani, MangarajÕs wife; Champa, MangarajÕs mistress; and Saria, BhagiaÕs
wife; all eventually succumb, through death, to the subjugating power of a
patriarchal system. And yet, their death is not an absolute death, they haunt
the present either as ghosts or as god, they live on in the novel as
after-lives, not living, nor dead, but half-dead.
Even though
Champa is ÔHarakala – the mistress of all wicked artsÕ35 – she is more intelligent than
Mangaraj as he himself admits; she conspires with Mangaraj to capture BhagiaÕs
six acres and a third, and then steals MangarajÕs wealth after he is imprisoned
and runs off with the barber Gobinda, but is then killed by Gobinda in a
competition of greed. However, she does not die; instead, she becomes a Ôhuge
ghostÉ sitting on the banyan tree and shaking its branches; sometimes the ghost
would go to the riverbed at mid-day and scatter sand to the winds. The ghat was
no longer called Gopalpur Ghat; it was known as the Abode of the Ghost.Õ36
Saria
on the other hand, is an honest weaver, Ôa simple, innocent eweÕ37 whose idyllic marital life with Bhagia
was filled with Ôsuch heavenly qualities as devoted love between husband and
wife, holiness of affection, absolute bliss, unfailing physical well -being,
and simple piety.Õ38 However,
she nurtures Ôa strange longing for children;Õ39 not only does this result in the fetish
of her cow, Neta, but she is driven to mortgage the six acres and a third to
Mangaraj to secure a loan to build a temple for Goddess Buddhi Mangala who will
grant her a child. However, Bhagia and Saria are unable to repay the loan on
time, and Mangaraj brings down their house and takes away Neta.
Saria sits on
the same spot in the Mangaraj household for eight days, wailing Ômy six acres
and a third, my six acres and a third, my Neta, my NetaÕ40 without eating anything. She would cling
to SaantaniÕs feet and weep bitterly. A few days later, at midnight, Mangaraj
gave her twenty blows on her back with a bamboo lathi. Saria died but in
MangarajÕs sleep while in prison, he would see Ôa terrifying figure in the sky
with long hair hanging loose from its monstrous head.Õ It seemed to be Ôthe
same woman working the spindles on the verandah of the weaverÕs houseÉ who had
now assumed this monstrous form and looked so grotesque and fearsome. And this
terrifying figure thundered at him, ÒGive me my six and a third acresÓ.Õ41
Saantani
too had not eaten for seven days and would weep along with Saria. She flung
herself at MangarajÕs feet, entreating him to return SariaÕs land, but he did
not pay heed to her, and kept quiet when Champa abused her. She refused
medicine and soon passed away. Perhaps the only unnamed female character in the
novel, Saantani found great happiness in serving mankind, had no desire to
dominate, treated everyone equally, and always took the side of the weak. She
was the Ôliving embodiment of such heavenly qualities such as kindness, love,
and devotion.Õ42 She believed her sacred duty was to serve her husband,
and although fate denied her a husbandÕs affection, she suffered this neglect
without complaint. And in fact, when Mangaraj was being haunted by Saria,
Saantani, full of light, seated on a jeweled throne far above the circle of the
sun in the endless sky was beckoning him, still forgiving. It is in the godly
vision of this protector of the unprotected and redeemer of the fallen that he
found refuge and toward whom his soul fled.
Ulka Anjaria
reads the narrative silence around Saria and Saantani as more than a mere
reflection of the morally compromised social worlds of late nineteenth century
feudal Orissa and colonial India; rather, it is also a device to generate an
Ôethics of descriptionÕ43 of such marginalization. Moreover, if the
idealized figures are a response to the silencing of women, silence is also
used by women as a weapon of empowerment. Thus, SaantaniÕs silence is
resistance to the injustice of her husband keeping a mistress, an active
rejection of the frantic and self-serving garrulity of the world of Mangaraj
and the lawyers,44 and as
Rabi Shankar Mishra suggests, by not speaking back to her husband but
conducting herself as per her own values rather than his, she maintains her
dignity and power.45
Claire
Horan disagrees that Saantani is a mode of empowerment because she represents
an oppressive Indian ideal that casts women solely as wives and mothers who
should emulate the honour and purity of goddesses. Women, she argues, should
not have to lead lives of suffering and self-denial in order to be mourned at
their death. Moreover, by turning Saantani into a god, perhaps Senapati was
already questioning the ideal of a perfect woman:46
ÔA man is fully a man only when all these elements (such as
kindness, attachment, love, affection, jealousy, hostility, and cruelty) are in
proper harmony, but he loses his humanity when one element comes to dominate.
When that happens, man turns into either a god or a demon.Õ47
On the other
side of the spectrum is Champa, to whom he is unsympathetic, and yet, describes
as powerful, intelligent, and strong, possessing strength equal to Gobind. As
Horan notes, Ôfor a male author in the late 19th century to suggest that men
and women have equal strength and force of character was unusual in any
culture.Õ48 And in
fact, SenapatiÕs ideal relationship is based on equality. Thus, not only do
Saria and Bhagia suffer equally, but they have an egalitarian relationship with
Bhagia being a vessel, and Saria its well-fitting lid. They form a whole,
neither functioning without the other. It is thus, Horan suggests, that
Senapati saw the human soul – human nature – as ungendered.
I
want to take seriously HoranÕs claim of an ungendered human soul: SenapatiÕs
intervention is not limited to arguing for an equality between male and female
bodies or noting the possibility of masculinity in female characters; rather,
he articulates an emphatically feminist position that is not tied to a gendered
body but to a mode of being. Thus, even though Champa, Saria and Saantani
demonstrate agency, none represents the vision of an alternative world; if
Champa and Saria are caught in the fangle of fetish, one of wealth, the other
of child, Saantani is rendered not human but god. It is in fact Bhagia who, in
his madness, provides a critique of the capitalist-patriarchal society and thus
occupies the feminist position of an ethical universe.
And yet, this
does not mean that for Senapati, only a male character could embody his ethical
vision; rather, not only do the characteristics of greed for wealth, unbridled
desire for a child, and unconditional kindness in Champa, Saria and Saantani respectively
serve as critical comments on the normative values of patriarchal discourse,
but also depict the challenges faced by those born female in a patriarchal
society. Thus, for instance, Saria, perhaps closest to Bhagia in SenapatiÕs
ethical vision, is accused of bringing disgrace to the village by being barren,
driving her to take the mortgage to please the Goddess.
Bhagia
was simple-minded, hardworking, generous, and had no enemies. When Saria was
troubled about the lack of a child, he consoled her, ÔGod has not given us what
we want. Why pine for it?Õ49 After Saria dies, he becomes the figure
of madness and hysteria; at the Cuttack Sessions Court where Mangaraj is being
tried for SariaÕs death, Ôa madman appeared, a rag tied around his waist, his
hair disheveled, and dust covering his bodyÉ He broke into a wild sort of
dance, shouting, ÒSaria, Saria!ÓÉWhen he caught sight of Mangaraj, he lunged at
him to bite him.Õ50 Arrested,
in prison too, he danced wildly and shouted, ÔOh my Saria, oh my six and a
third acres,Õ51 trying to
bite Mangaraj whenever he saw him.
SariaÕs desire
for a child is framed by a capitalist patriarchal discourse that convert desire
into meaningless drive, feeding on individual creations of fetish to replace
the alienation wrought by capitalism. It is thus that SariaÕs last words
remained Neta – her fetish to replace the incomplete desire for a child
– and six acres and a third. Bhagia on the other hand, in his madness,
exposes the madness of the prevailing system; his madness, like hysteria,
serves the function of a symptom that exposes the garb behind a seemingly
well-functioning system. It points to the fact that something is wrong, despite
claims to the contrary.
And yet, this
does not mean that Bhagia had a natural right to the property: rather, by
suggesting that BhagiaÕs father acquired the contentious six acres and third of
land because of his power, Senapati questions the moral justification of land
ownership, suggesting that all property is theft and the real owners are only
those who create social value, the labouring masses. It is precisely this
suggestion that Bhagia embodies in his madness, rendering unstable and tenuous
easy binaries between colonizer-colonized, male-female, landlord-peasant.
While concerned with the identification and disruption of
power then, the novel acts not merely as an Ôunrelenting critique, satire, and
skeptical analysisÕ52 and neither does it limit itself to
documenting resistance; rather, it embodies the madness of capitalÕs encounter
with ÔcultureÕ and locates in precisely the figure gone mad by this encounter,
the potentiality for an alternative ethical vision. For the figure gone mad
poses an irruption, forcing an interregnum, compelling a questioning of what is
otherwise taken for granted, in an attempt to make moral meaning in both
discourse and action. As such, it anticipatorily answers S.F. AlatasÕ call Ôto
go beyond merely talking about the problem to actually practice alternative
discourse.Õ
Footnotes
:
1. Anurag Bhaskar, Subhajit Naskar, Priyanka Preet, Ramachandran, ÔSelective Hiring of ÒDomÓ Caste Amid Pandemic in West Bengal: The Casteist Attack on The ConstitutionÕ, livelaw.in, 05 June 2021.
2. Fakir Mohan Senapati, translated from Oriya by Rabi Shankar Mishra, Satya P. Mohanty, Jatindra K. Nayak, Paul St-Pierre, Six Acres and a Third: The Classic Nineteenth Century Novel about Colonial India. University of California Press, Berkeley, 2005, p. 78.
3. Ibid., p. 97.
4. Melvin Richter,ÔIntroductionÕ, in Martine J. Burke and Melvin Richter (eds.), Why Concepts Matter: Translating Social and Political Thought. Brill, Leiden & Boston, pp. 1-40, p. 9.
5. Sisir Kumar Das, A History of Indian Literature, 1800-1910. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1991, p. 296.
6. Satya P. Mohanty, ÔThe Epistemic Work of Literary Realism: Two Novels from Colonial IndiaÕ, in Ulka Anjaria (ed.), History of the Indian Novel in English. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2015, p. 49.
7. Satya P. Mohanty, ÔIntroductionÕ, in Six Acres, p. 6.
8. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 19.
9. Ibid., p. 20.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Syed Hussein Alatas, ÔIntellectual Imperialism: Definition, Traits, and ProblemsÕ, Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science 28(1), 2000, pp. 23-45.
13. Ibid.
14. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 87.
15. Syed Hussein Alatas, ÔIntellectual ImperialismÕ.
16. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 58.
17. Syed Hussein Alatas, ÔIntellectual ImperialismÕ.
18. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 84.
19. Syed Hussein Alatas, ÔIntellectual ImperialismÕ.
20. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 85.
21. Syed Hussein Alatas, ÔIntellectual ImperialismÕ.
22. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 85.
23. Satya P. Mohanty, ÔThe Epistemic Work of Literary RealismÕ.
24. Satya P. Mohanty, ÔIntroductionÕ, in Six Acres, p. 23.
25. Ibid., p. 2.
26. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 80.
27. Ibid., p. 88.
28. Ibid., p. 89.
29. Ibid., p. 90.
30. Ibid., p. 46.
31. Ibid., p. 48.
32. Ibid., p. 97.
33. Ibid., p. 99.
34. Ibid.
35. Ibid., p. 55.
36. Ibid., p. 202.
37. Ibid., p. 111.
38. Ibid., p. 95.
39. Ibid., p. 92.
40. Ibid., p. 160.
41. Ibid., p. 216.
42. Ibid., p. 145.
43. Ulka Anjaria,ÔÒWhy DonÕt You Speak?Ó: The Narrative Politics of Silence in Senapati, Premchand and Monica AliÕ, in Satya P. Mohanty (ed.), Colonialism, Modernity, and Literature: A View from India. Palgrave MacMillan, New York, 2011, pp. 153-172, p. 158.
44. Ibid.
45. Rabi Shankar Mishra, ÔChha Mana Atha Guntha: The Language of Power and the Silences of a WomanÕ, in Meenakshi Mukherjee (ed.), Early Novels in India. Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 2002, pp. 240-60.
46. Claire Horan, ÔThe Representation of Women and Gender Relations in Six Acres and a Third, in Satya P. Mohanty (ed.), Colonialism, Modernity, and Literature: A View from India. Palgrave MacMillan, New York, 2011, pp. 173-186.
47. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 149.
48. Claire Horan,ÔThe Representation of WomenÕ, p. 178.
49. Fakir Mohan Senapati, transl. by Rabi Shankar Mishra et al., Six Acres, p. 96.
50. Ibid., p. 167.
51. Ibid., p. 211.
52. Satya P. Mohanty, ÔIntroduction, in Six Acres, p. 14.